During the late 15th century, European visitors began arriving in Benin City and subsequently played important roles in trade, the military, religion, and belief. Edo artists incorporated a range of figures understood to represent Europeans into the visual language of Emwin Arre (royal treasures). These depictions served in part to communicate the power and reach of the Benin monarchy, making the “greatness of ruler and realm more palpable” and demonstrating that the Ọba’s authority extended beyond his own people to those who came from distant lands ( ).

European visitors came from a number of countries, including the Netherlands, Britain, France, and Italy. Portuguese visitors, however, had the most extensive and enduring influence, which is particularly evident in the visual language of Benin royal arts ( ).

European figures were incorporated into Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), dating primarily to the 16th and 17th centuries, and Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks), dating from the 17th to the 19th centuries. They are typically depicted with straight, shoulder-length hair and/or beards, rounded cap-like headwear, heavily pleated skirts, and jerkins ( ). These figures often appear alongside other motifs associated with European trade and contact, such as Ugianranran (manillas) and horses, or with warfare, such as firearms. In addition to full-length figures, the Uhunmwu Ikpotoki (Portuguese head) was incorporated into a wide range of objects, most likely as a symbol of power and wealth associated with overseas trade and, by extension, with Olokun, the deity of the sea.

European figures also became part of the visual language developed by the Emada, palace pages whose carving tradition differed from that of the royal guild of wood and ivory carvers, the Igbesamwan. Although the precise origins of the Emada carving tradition are uncertain, it is thought to have developed during the reign of Ọba Adolo, and many surviving examples are therefore dated to the 19th century. Their representations of Europeans differ from the conventions used in earlier depictions understood to represent Portuguese visitors. Rather than wearing pleated skirts and jerkins, these later figures are typically shown in suits, wide-brimmed hats, and smoking pipes, and may carry straighter, sabre-like swords, guns, or umbrellas.

Asoro (spears) were used as weapons in battle and for hunting ( ; Ọbazee 2025, p. 37). According to , there were two types: long and short. Figures holding Asoro are often depicted on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), sometimes in battle scenes and at ceremonies and festivals.

The Ukpan obọ eva (coral-bead crossed baldrics) were worn as part of the ehaingbehia, the full ceremonial regalia, by only high-ranking members of the palace, including the Ọba himself, the Iy’Ọba, the Edaiken, and the Ezọmọ (Ben-Amos 1999, pp. 68, 141; Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 70, pp. 322–323).

The Ubanu'hi (infinity symbol) is a kind of guilloche or interlaced strapwork motif that can be angular or rounded. It was used by Edo artists in the decoration of many Emwin Arhe (royal treasures) and is ubiquitous in Benin royal arts. Ubanu'hi is a shortened form of “uba no Ọba ya de agbon ke ehimwin yi”, which means “the rope with which the Ọba ties the heaven and earth together” (pers. comm. Chief John Igbineweka Inneh n’Igbesawman, 2022). Similarly, Paula Ben-Amos Girshick (in Plankensteiner 2007, pp. 339, 341) described this as “Ọba n’iri agbon”, or the “rope of the world” pattern.

According to Ọbabanmu Ineh (in Blackmun 1984, p. 51), the use of this motif indicates that objects were carved by members of the Igbesanmwan. However, the motif is found on all types of Emwin Arhe (royal treasures), not only those made of ivory or wood. On the flanges of the Ama (relief plaques) alone, Kathryn Gunsch (2018, pp. 75–77) identified three different versions of the Ubanu'hi and, through her analysis of over 850 plaques, found that these different Ubanu'hi forms align with other characteristics, such as dimensions, the prevalence of ornamental motifs, and stylistic qualities. Together, these provide evidence, she argues, of different production groups among the plaque makers .

Kate Ezra (1992, pp. 209, 264) went on to argue that the use of these motifs indicates that certain objects were used in a “royal context” and were associated with “royal patronage”.

Odigba (coral-beaded collar) is a rigid neck collar made of coral beads, worn as part of ceremonial attire only by senior princes who have been made Enigie (Inneh 2007, p. 107). Although Ibafe (2007, p. 43) argued that the Odigba was introduced during the Ogiso period (c. 900–c. 1170 AD) by Ogiso Ere, along with other symbolically important Emwin Arhe, such as the Ada (ceremonial sword) and the Ẹbẹn (ceremonial sword), this seems unlikely, as coral was only introduced in the late 15th century through trade with Portuguese merchants.