The Umọmọ is an L-shaped hammer made of iron that holds profound importance, symbolising power, transformation, and spiritual efficacy. The hammer is fundamentally associated with Ogun, the god of iron, embodying “the force inherent in metal, [with] a mystical power with the potential to create or destroy” ( ). This dual aspect of the hammer—its capacity for both shaping and destruction—mirrors the formidable power of the Ọba. The L-shaped hammer is often associated specifically with Ọba Eresonyẹn, as it most commonly appears within the visual language of Emwin Arhe (royal treasures) that he commissioned, for example, held by Ewua figures and on one ornate cast Ẹrhẹ, thought to have been Ọba Eresonyẹn’s throne (id. no. 209779) ( ).

The hammer is notably held by figures identified as Ewua palace officials or Ohensa priests, who also wear a cross pendant on their chests. The consistent portrayal of these figures holding the Umọmọ underscores its connection to the origins of the Benin dynasty and the spiritual authority of the Ọba. Ọba Esigie, the powerful 16th-century “warrior king”, is credited with encouraging ironworking, further solidifying the hammer’s link to royal martial strength and divine kingship.

Appearing on Aken'ni Elao (carved ivory tusks), Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), and even as a charm, the hammer symbolises the Ọba’s ability to “mold and transform” events, to overcome challenges, and to provide spiritual protection ( ). Its presence thus reinforces the complex interplay of hierarchy, spiritual authority, and military might within the Benin Kingdom, consistent with other potent symbols such as the Akọn Ẹkpẹn (leopard’s tooth neck ornament). The Umọmọ often appears on Emwin Arhe (royal treasures) believed to have been commissioned during the reign of Ọba Eresonyẹn ( ; ).

Other terms for hammer in Edo are Avan or Avalaka ( ), which are used interchangeably with Umọmọ by members of the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn.

Itakpa facial markings consist of three linear cicatrizations at both corners of the mouth of figures, sometimes described as “cat’s whiskers” by scholars researching Benin art history (e.g., Willett 1967, pp. 67–70; Nevadomsky 1986, p. 41). Edo people do not, and did not historically, wear this type of facial marking. Therefore, it has been suggested that these figures could be messengers or envoys sent to the Kingdom of Benin by the Ooni of Ife, as similar facial markings have been seen on terracotta sculptures from Ife (Willett 1967). However, during Joseph Nevadomsky’s (1986, p. 41) research in Benin City, people identified these markings as Itakpa, a kind of facial marking worn by people from areas to the north of the Benin Kingdom, where the Niger and Benue rivers meet, such as the Nupe, Igala, or some Yoruba communities. Furthermore, in his 1937 Edo-English dictionary, Melzian (p. 102) identified Itakpa as the Edo word for the Nupe. During the 16th century, Ọbas led expansion wars, such as the Idah War in 1515–16 under the rule of Ọba Esigie; therefore, the attribution of figures with these markings as ‘foreigners’ corresponds with the history of the Kingdom.

Uman-ague is a badge in the form of an equal-armed cross. The cross with straight-sided arms is known as the “Greek cross,” while the type with V-shaped arms, narrowing toward the centre, is known as the “Maltese cross.”

Uman-ague is usually worn around the neck by members of the Ewua or by the Ohensa ( ). The equal-armed cross has various meanings: as a symbol of cosmic order, it represents the number four and references the “four cardinal points established by the High God Osanobua when he created the world” (Girshick Ben-Amos 1999, p. 64), as well as the “crossroads or junction that serves as the point of connection between the natural and spiritual worlds” ( ). Paula Girshick Ben-Amos ( ) also argues that when used on the Aken'ni Elao (altar tusk), the cross, together with the Ivie okpagbaru (royal bead), constitutes an “emblematic reference” to Ọba Ẹsigie.

The cross also references the Portuguese missionaries who brought Christianity to the Kingdom during the reign of Ọba Ẹsigie, although the symbol was already in use before the arrival of Europeans ( ). The Maltese cross is thought to have been introduced by Ọba Eresonyẹn as part of his efforts to encourage the worship of the High God Osanobua during his reign ( ; ). Regardless, Uman-ague is often associated with Ọba Ẹsigie.

Figures bearing an equal-armed cross on the chest have been interpreted variously as messengers from Ife ( ), or, more likely, as either Ẹwua officials or Ohensa priests ( ; ). These differing interpretations highlight the ambiguity of the visual language of Emwin Arre (royal treasures), in which the meaning and identity of a figure may depend on the type of object on which it appears, the period in which the object was made, and the combination of motifs surrounding it.

The Ẹwua guild was established by Ọba Ẹsigie, and its members were responsible for waking the Ọba each morning ( ). In 1959, Ọba Akẹnzua II identified the cross-bearing figure specifically as an Ẹwua official (in Bradbury 1959, B.S. 207/2). Alternatively, the figure has been identified as an Ohensa, a priest of the High God Osanobua, whose worship also became closely associated with Christianity following the arrival of Portuguese missionaries during the reign of Ọba Ẹsigie.

These figures were cast in brass and bronze both as freestanding figures and as elements within the compositions of Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), as well as being carved on 18th- and 19th-century Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks). They are typically identifiable by their rounded, bowler-like hats with narrow brims and the equal-armed cross pendants worn on their chests. In their left hand they hold an L-shaped hammer known as Umọmọ, while in their right hand they sometimes carry a tall, straight staff ( ).