Ẹroro (bells) frequently appear as ornaments worn by figures depicted on the Emwin Arhe, particularly on Ama-Eronmwon (bronze relief plaques) and Aken’ni Elao (carved tusks). These Ẹroro are most commonly quadrangular in form or, less commonly, cylindrical with rounded tops. Quadrangular Ẹroro worn around the neck are often part of the attire that indicates that figures can be interpreted as warriors, alongside the Akọn Ẹkpẹn (leopard tooth neck ornament) and the Ohian Ẹkpẹn (leopard tunics).

Ẹbẹn are a type of ceremonial sword of significant importance in the Benin Kingdom. During ceremonies, titled chiefs would hold them or toss them during dances, thereby paying homage to the Ọba at these public events, particularly when a chief receives a certain status. It is forbidden for Ẹbẹn to touch the ground, so the chief must take extra precautions to avoid dropping the Ẹbẹn during the dance. Therefore, the Okae-Odionmwan (head of executioners) dances with the Umozo (warfare or executioner’s sword) behind the dancing chief.

There are two central ceremonial swords used in the royal court of the Benin Kingdom, one of which is the Ẹbẹn, along with the Ada (ceremonial swords). They are distinguished by their blades: the Ẹbẹn blade reflects the shape of a leaf or an oar. Sometimes, it is decorated with openwork designs and/or brass inlays, most commonly shaped as small Ẹbẹn and Ẹkpẹn (leopards). The handle of the Ẹbẹn also has an unusual ring-shaped form, which further differentiates it from the Ada.

Asa (shields) are a crucial attribute of warriors and warrior chiefs, forming part of their ceremonial and battle attire as represented on the Emwin Arhe (royal treasures). Asa were usually made from elephant or crocodile skin and used by warriors for protection during hand-to-hand combat (Osadolor 2001, p. 102). Interestingly, the form of Asa depicted on historic royal artefacts differs from those found in museum collections today, reflecting changes in shield shapes and designs over time.

Many different kinds of Ẹrhu (headwear) are worn by the various figures depicted in the imagery of Benin royal artefacts. Through comparisons with ceremonial regalia still worn by chiefs and members of the royal court, including the Ọba himself, some Ẹrhu have been used to identify the different figures depicted. For example, the conical hat worn by high-ranking town chiefs as part of the pangolin regalia, still worn at ceremonies, is also visible on figures on some Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) ( ). Other examples include the distinctive bell-shaped helmet associated with the Iyasẹ ( ). Figures who wear a shallow-brimmed hat and a cross have been identified as Ewua or Ohensa priests ( ).

Different kinds of helmets and headwear were worn by warriors, reflecting the many different ranks and roles in the army at any given time, as well as developing trends that were in turn represented on Emwin Arhe created at different points in time. Warrior figures wearing helmets covered in cowrie shells were carved on the Aken'ni Elao (carved tusks) (Blackmun 1984, p. 330), yet on the brass Ama, warriors are sometimes depicted wearing helmets made from crocodile hide or horsehair with a front plate (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457). Helmets made from horsehair with a front plate are one of the more common types represented on the Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn, and the demand for black horse tails was noted by both Portuguese and British traders during the late 17th and 18th centuries (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457). Other warriors depicted on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn wear helmets with a rounded top, chinstrap, and sometimes also a feather tucked into the left side. These types of headwear are known as Ẹrhu Iyokuo.

Attire worn for battle also differed from that worn for ceremonial occasions, such as the pointed headwear worn in combination with an ornate leopard-head tunic by war chiefs. Depictions of figures wearing this attire on brass Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) have been interpreted as representing the war chiefs’ participation in the war-ritual Isiokuo festival (Osadolor in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 238, p. 457).

Another distinctive form of headwear is that worn by figures identified as leopard hunters on the brass Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (relief plaques). These large helmets cover almost all of the leopard hunters’ faces except for their noses, eyes, and upper lips, and are made of an unusual material that remains unidentifiable (Plankensteiner 2007, cat. nos. 68–69, p. 322).

European figures are also portrayed with distinctive hats, such as Portuguese three-cornered hats. These depictions reflect the artists’ keen observation and highlight the impact of European trade and military assistance (Ezra 1992).

Ebe Amẹ refers to a wide variety of plants, particularly the leaves of the water fern or river leaf, found in riverine areas of southern Nigeria ( ). Artists from the Igun-Ẹrọnmwọn used these as a decorative motif in the background of most Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques). The petals of the Ebe Amẹ, like the points of the ἀghàdàgháda (crossroads), represent the four cardinal directions: north, east, south, and west. The number four plays a foundational role in the Edo calendar, which is structured around four market days ( ).

The Umozo is a type of sword with a short, broad, and curved single-edged blade that was used by warriors during warfare (Bradbury 1973, p. 260; Osadolor 2001, p. 109). According to Benson Osadolor (2001, p. 109), it is remembered in Benin City as one of the oldest kinds of weapons used in warfare and “was better for the attack than defence”.

Akọn Ẹkpẹn are necklaces or neck ornaments made of strung leopard’s teeth. They are worn by figures to signify their high rank and military prowess, as well as by their leaders, the Ezọmọ or Iyasẹ. They are often worn alongside quadrangular Ẹroro (bells) and Ohian Ẹkpẹn (leopard tunics).

The Akọn Ẹkpẹn is clearly and profoundly related to the symbolism of the Ẹkpẹn (leopard) and its association with the Ọba (king), who is metaphorically referred to as ‘ẹkpẹn ne owa’, the ‘leopard of the home’. On the other hand, the Ẹkpẹn is often referred to as the ‘king of the bush’, embodying ferocity, aggression, strength, and leadership—qualities attributed to the Ọba (Nevadomsky 1988). This intricate link between the leopard, the monarch, and his military leaders reinforces the complex hierarchy and spiritual authority central to Benin’s courtly art.

Ẹkpoki are cylindrical boxes made by members of the Isekpokin (guild of leather workers) from leather and bark. In the late 19th century, some were also crafted from brass sheet with rich embossed ornamentation. Members of the Igun Ẹronmwon (guild of brass casters) might have created examples from cast brass, although only a single example of this kind is known today (inventory no. 212729). Ẹkpoki are used by the Ọba to present gifts to chiefs, while chiefs use leather Ẹkpoki to send kola nuts and other traditional items to one another (Inneh 2007, pp. 109–110). Ẹkpoki also feature in important rituals such as Iguẹ, during which the Ọba is ceremonially presented with an Ẹkpoki (Blackmun in Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 74, p. 328), as well as Ugie-Ewere, during which the Ọba is presented with an Ẹkpoki that symbolically contains a gift from the Ooni of Ife (Plankensteiner 2007, cat. no. 83, p. 336). This refers to an oral tradition that, at the coronation, the Ooni of Ife sent certain regalia. Gifts presented in Ẹkpoki could also have carried symbolic messages.

In the riverine area surrounding Benin City, there are two types of crocodile. The Ẹghughu, known in English as the dwarf or bush crocodile, is believed to be more docile ( ; Ọbazee 2025, p. 133). The second type is the Àgbákà, the aggressive Nile crocodile ( ; Ọbazee 2025, p. 11).

Crocodiles are one of the important animals represented in the historical Emwin Arhe, and they are known as Olokun’s guards or the “policemen” of the waters. The powerful and ferocious qualities of these animals might explain why warrior figures are often depicted wearing Uhunmwu-Ẹkuẹ (pendant masks) in the shape of crocodile heads on Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques) ( ). Olokun devotees use crocodiles as sacrificial animals in offerings during the worship of Olokun.

This rosette design, usually found in the corners of Ama-Ẹrọnmwọn (bronze relief plaques), is one of two motifs representing the sun and one of a number of motifs in Edo art that are also connected with Olokun. The association between the sun and Olokun refers to the way in which the sun descends into the sea each day—hence the proverb ‘the sun never misses a day’—and the sea is where the deity Olokun lives ( ).